Basic
Worldview:
104
Why Christianity?
Propositional
Religions 2 -
Intro, Hinduism, Buddhism
Propositional
Religions 1 - Deism, Pantheism, and Naturalism
Propositional Religions 2 - Intro,
Hinduism, Buddhism
Propositional Religions 3 - Jainism,
Taoism
Propositional Religions 4 - Shintoism,
Confucianism
Propositional Religions 5 - Sikhism
Propositional Religions 6 - Babism
and Baha'ism, Zoroastrianism
Propositional Religions 7 - Neopaganism,
Mysticism (Syncretism)
Propositional Religions 8 - Mysticism
Propositional Religions 9 - Mysticism, Gnosticism, Neoplatonism
Introduction | Section 1
| Section 2 | Section
3
Propositional Religions
We will now begin our examination of religions, beginning
with particular Propositional religions. In all cases we will
follow the two-step process that we have developed earlier.
It is helpful to once again briefly restate this process as
we begin our investigation.
First, we will seek to determine whether or not a religion
is available to objective verification of the accuracy of
its truth claims. This will involve evaluating whether a religion
can be traced to verifiably historical figures and events
(historicity). And this will involve evaluating whether those
historical figures and events provide objective evidence in
support of the claims of that religion.
Second, if a religion does provide objective evidence for
evaluating the accuracy of its beliefs, we will examine that
evidence to see if it does, in fact, demonstrate that the
religion's claims are accurate.
Any religion, which either does not provide objective evidence
in support of its claims or whose evidence is does not demonstrate
the accuracy of its claims, will be rejected. Any religion,
which does provide objective evidence in support of its claims
and whose evidence demonstrates the accuracy of its claims
will be accepted.
With that said we will proceed to our first candidate for
analysis, Hinduism.
Hinduism
In accordance with the process we have defined repeatedly
above we will begin our evaluation of Hinduism by assessing
its historicity or, seeing if it has historically identifiable
origins.
"Hinduism - Western term for the religious beliefs
and practices of the vast majority of the people of India.
One of the oldest living religions in the world, Hinduism
is unique among the world religions in that it had no single
founder but grew over a period of 4,000 years in syncretism
with the religious and cultural movements of the Indian subcontinent.
Hinduism is composed of innumerable sects and has no well-defined
ecclesiastical organization. Its two most general features
are the caste system and acceptance of the Veda as the most
sacred scriptures." - The Columbia Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
2001.
"Hinduism - Hinduism is a synthesis of the religion
brought into India by the Aryans (c.1500 B.C.) and indigenous
religion." - The Columbia Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
2001.
"Hinduism - Hinduism is both a civilization and a
congregation of religions; it has neither a beginning or founder,
nor a central authority, hierarchy, or organization. Every
attempt at a specific definition of Hinduism has proved unsatisfactory
in one way or another, the more so because the finest scholars
of Hinduism, including Hindus themselves, have emphasized
different aspects of the whole." - Britannica.com
"Hinduism - The history of Hinduism began in India
about 1500 BC. Although its literature can be traced only
to before 1000 BC, evidence of Hinduism's earlier antecedents
is derived from archaeology, comparative philology, and comparative
religion." - Britannica.com
"Hinduism - The earliest literary source for the
history of Hinduism is the Rigveda (Rgveda), the hymns
of which were chiefly composed during the last two or three
centuries of the 2nd millennium BC. The religious life reflected
in this text is not that of Hinduism but of an earlier
sacrificial religious system, generally known as Brahmanism
or Vedism , which developed in India among Aryan invaders."
- Britannica.com
"Hinduism - Before they entered the Indian subcontinent
(c. 1500 BC), the Aryans were in close contact with the
ancestors of the Iranians, as evidenced by similarities between
Sanskrit and the earliest surviving Iranian languages. Thus,
the religion of the Rigveda contains elements from three evolutionary
strata: an early element common to most of the Indo-European
tribes; a later element held in common with the early Iranians;
and an element acquired in the Indian subcontinent itself,
after the main Aryan migrations. Hinduism arose from the
continued accretion of further elements derived from the original
non-Aryan inhabitants, from outside sources, and from the
geniuses of individual reformers at all periods." - Britannica.com
"Hinduism - The development of Hinduism can be interpreted
as a constant interaction between the religion of the upper
social groups, represented by the Brahmans (priests and teachers),
and the religion of other groups. From the time of
the Aryan invasion (c. 1500 BC) the indigenous inhabitants
of the subcontinent have tended to adapt their religious and
social life to Brahmanic norms. This has developed from
the desire of lower-class groups to rise on the social ladder
by adopting the ways and beliefs of the higher castes.
This process, sometimes called "Sanskritization," began in
Vedic times when non-Aryan chieftains accepted the ministrations
of Brahmans and thus achieved social status for themselves
and their subjects. It was probably the principal method by
which Hinduism spread through the subcontinent and into Southeast
Asia. Sanskritization still continues in the form of the
conversion of tribal groups, and it is reflected by the
persistent tendency of low-caste Hindus to try to raise their
status by adopting high-caste customs, such as wearing
the sacred cord and becoming vegetarians." - Britannica.com
"Hinduism - Thus, the history of Hinduism can be
interpreted as the imposition of orthodox custom upon wider
and wider ranges of people and, complementarily, as the
survival of features of non-Aryan religions that gained strength
steadily until they were adapted by the Brahmans."
- Britannica.com
"Hinduism - The prehistoric culture of the Indus Valley
arose in the latter centuries of the 3rd millennium BC from
the metal-using village cultures of the region. There is
considerable evidence of the religious life of the Indus people,
but until their writing is deciphered its interpretation is
speculative. Enough evidence exists, however, to show that
several features of later Hinduism had prehistoric origins."
- Britannica.com
"Hinduism - Other interpretations of the remains of
the Harappa culture are more speculative and, if accepted,
would indicate that many features of later Hinduism were already
in existence 4,000 years ago." - Britannica.com
The above resources inform us that Hinduism's origins are
not completely understood or historically identifiable. As
far as we know Hinduism has no discernable founder and we
cannot pinpoint exactly when it began. We can approximate
the relative time frame for the emergence of early Hindu beliefs
and how these beliefs arose from an interaction between the
beliefs of the native peoples of the Indian subcontinent and
those of the Aryan nomads that entered the region sometime
during the 2nd millennium B.C. (around 1500 B.C. perhaps).
But we do not have sufficient information to determine with
any exactness when, why, or by whom the various precursory
religions, which contributed to early Hinduism, were first
proposed themselves.
The lack of clarity regarding the origin and initial proposition
of Hinduism's contributing beliefs is further complicated
by the late dating of available sacred Hindu texts.
"Veda - oldest scriptures of Hinduism and the most
ancient religious texts in an Indo-European language.
The authority of the Veda as stating the essential truths
of Hinduism is still accepted to some extent by all Hindus.
The Veda is the literature of the Aryans who invaded NW
India c.1500 B.C. and pertains to the fire sacrifice that
constituted their religion. The Vedic hymns were probably
first compiled after a period of about 500 years during which
the invaders assimilated various native religious ideas. The
end of the Vedic period is about 500 B.C. Tradition ascribes
the authorship of the hymns to inspired seer-poets (rishis).
- The Columbia Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. 2001.
"Hinduism - Perhaps the defining characteristic of
Hindu belief is the recognition of the Veda, the most ancient
body of religious literature, as an absolute authority revealing
fundamental and unassailable truth. At the same time,
however, its content has long been practically unknown
to most Hindus, and it is seldom drawn upon for literal information
or advice. Still, it is venerated from a distance by every
traditional Hindu, and those Indians who reject its authority
(such as Buddhists and Jains) are regarded as unfaithful to
their tradition." - Britannica.com
"Hinduism - Hindus disagree about the way (marga)
to final emancipation (moksha). Three paths to salvation
(variously valued but nonexclusive) are presented in an
extremely influential religious text, the Bhagavadgita ("Song
of the Lord"; c. 200 BC), according to which it is not
acts themselves but the desire for their results that produces
karma and thus attachment."- Britannica.com
"Hinduism - The earliest literary source for the
history of Hinduism is the Rigveda (Rgveda), the hymns
of which were chiefly composed during the last two or three
centuries of the 2nd millennium BC. The religious life reflected
in this text is not that of Hinduism but of an earlier
sacrificial religious system, generally known as Brahmanism
or Vedism , which developed in India among Aryan invaders."
- Britannica.com
"Hinduism - The Aryans of the early Vedic period left
few material remains, but they left a very important literary
record called the Rigveda. Its 1,028 hymns are distributed
throughout 10 books, of which the first and the last are the
most recent." - Britannica.com
"Hinduism - The Rigveda ("Wisdom of the Verses")
is not a unitary work, and its composition may have taken
several centuries. In its form at the time of its final edition
it reflects a well-developed religious system. The date
commonly given for the final recension of the Rigveda is 1000
BC. During the next two or three centuries the Rigveda
was supplemented by three other Vedas and, still later, by
Vedic texts called the Brahmanas and the Upanishads (see below
Sacred texts: Vedas." - Britannica.com
As the above references all inform us the earliest available
written sources, (including Bhagavadgita and the Vedas) which
document ancient pre-Hindu and Hindu beliefs all come from
a period of 500-1300 years after the approximate origin of
pre-Hindu and Hindu beliefs.
This lack of information regarding how, why, and by whom the
pre-Hindu and Hindu beliefs originated puts us at a series
disadvantage for finding and examining any possible evidence,
which could objectively verify whether those beliefs are accurate.
So, without such objectively verifiable evidence, we must
ask what means Hinduism does rely upon in order for people
to understand and accept its views as true?
Hinduism heavily emphasizes the necessity of the subjective,
personal experience (rather than reasonable evaluation of
objective evidence) as the means for individuals to know the
ultimate truth and reality of the universe.
"Hinduism - Although the search for moksha has never
been the goal of more than a small minority of Hindus, liberation
was a religious ideal that affected all lives. Moksha
determined not only the hierarchical values of Indian social
institutions and religious doctrines and practices but also
the function of Indian philosophy, which is to discuss what
one must do to find true fulfillment and what one has to realize,
by direct experience, in order to escape from samsara (bondage)
and obtain spiritual freedom." - Britannica.com
"Hinduism - Magic rites, animal worship, and
belief in demons are often combined with the worship of
more or less personal gods or with mysticism, asceticism,
and abstract and profound theological systems or esoteric
doctrines." - Britannica.com
"Hinduism - Hindus are inclined to revere the divine
in every manifestation, whatever it may be, and are doctrinally
tolerant, allowing othersÑincluding both Hindus and non-HindusÑwhatever
beliefs suit them best...Because religious truth is
said to transcend all verbal definition, it is not conceived
in dogmatic terms." - Britannica.com
"Hinduism - Hindus disagree about the way (marga)
to final emancipation (moksha). Three paths to salvation
(variously valued but nonexclusive) are presented in an
extremely influential religious text, the Bhagavadgita ("Song
of the Lord"; c. 200 BC), according to which it is not acts
themselves but the desire for their results that produces
karma and thus attachment. These three ways to salvation are
(1) the karma-marga ("the path of duties"), the disinterested
discharge of ritual and social obligations; (2) the jnana-marga
("the path of knowledge"), the use of meditative concentration
preceded by a long and systematic ethical and contemplative
training, yoga, to gain a supra-intellectual insight into
one's identity with brahman; and (3) the bhakti-marga
("the path of devotion"), the devotion to a personal God.
These ways are regarded as suited to various types of people."
- Britannica.com
The above quotes all confirm the fundamental importance of
subjective experience as the critical means by which the Hindu
understands the truth of his religious views. Besides such
personal experiences no objective evidence is offered by which
we might substantiate Hinduism's claims about the nature of
God and the universe. Because of the obscurity of its origins,
its subsequent dependence upon subjective experience, and
its lack of objective evidence by which we might corroborate
its claims, we are without any verifiable means or sound reason
to accept Hinduism as an accurate view of God. As such, we
are forced to reject the claims of Hinduism.
Before we move on to our next candidate however, we should
first take the opportunity to highlight a defining characteristic
of Hinduism, its incorporation of other religious ideas into
a single belief system. We will cover this topic in more detail
later in our study, but because Hinduism plays an important
role in the development of several other religions that we
will study shortly, it is important to establish this trait
before we continue.
"Hinduism - In the middle of the first millennium B.C.,
an ossified Brahmanism was challenged by heterodox, i.e.,
non-Vedic, systems, notably Buddhism and Jainism. The
priestly elite responded by creating a synthesis that accepted
yogic practices and their goals, recognized the gods and
image worship of popular devotional movements, and adopted
greater concern for the daily life of the people." - The Columbia
Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. 2001.
"Hinduism - the beliefs, practices, and socioreligious
institutions of the Hindus (originally, the inhabitants of
the land of the Indus River). Introduced in about 1830 by
British writers, the term properly denotes the Indian civilization
of approximately the last 2,000 years, which evolved from
Vedism, the religion of the Indo-European peoples who settled
in India in the last centuries of the 2nd millennium BC. Because
it integrates a variety of elements, Hinduism constitutes
a complex but largely continuous whole and has religious,
social, economic, literary, and artistic aspects. As a
religion, Hinduism is a composite of diverse doctrines, cults,
and ways of life." - Britannica.com
"Hinduism - In principle, Hinduism incorporates
all forms of belief and worship without necessitating the
selection or elimination of any. It is axiomatic that
no religious idea in India ever dies or is supersededÑit
is merely combined with the new ideas that arise in response
to it. Hindus are inclined to revere the divine in every manifestation,
whatever it may be, and are doctrinally tolerant, allowing
othersÑincluding both Hindus and non-HindusÑwhatever beliefs
suit them best. A Hindu may embrace a non-Hindu religion
without ceasing to be a Hindu, and because Hindus are disposed
to think synthetically and to regard other forms of worship,
strange gods, and divergent doctrines as inadequate rather
than wrong or objectionable, they tend to believe that the
highest divine powers complement one another. Few religious
ideas are considered to be irreconcilable. The core of
religion does not depend on the existence or nonexistence
of God or on whether there is one god or many. Because religious
truth is said to transcend all verbal definition, it is not
conceived in dogmatic terms. Moreover, the tendency of
Hindus to distinguish themselves from others on the basis
of practice (orthopraxy) rather than doctrine (orthodoxy)
further de-emphasizes doctrinal differences. " - Britannica.com
"Hinduism - Hinduism is both a civilization and a
congregation of religions; it has neither a beginning or founder,
nor a central authority, hierarchy, or organization." - Britannica.com
"Hinduism - The Rigveda contains many other Indo-European
elements, such as the worship of male sky gods with sacrifices
and the existence of the old sky god Dyaus, whose name
is cognate with those of the classical Zeus of Greece and
Jupiter of Rome ("Father Jove"). The Vedic heaven, the "world
of the fathers," resembled the Germanic Valhalla and seems
also to be an Indo-European inheritance." - Britannica.com
"Hinduism - The Indo-Iranian element in later Hinduism
is chiefly found in the initiatory ceremony (upanayana)
performed by boys of the three upper classes, a rite both
in Hinduism and in Zoroastrianism that involves the tying
of a sacred cord. The Vedic god Varuna, now an unimportant
sea god, appears in the Rigveda as sharing many features
of the Zoroastrian Ahura Mazda ("Wise Lord"); the hallucinogenic
sacred drink soma corresponds to the sacred haoma of Zoroastrianism."
- Britannica.com
"Hinduism - The Central Asian nomads who entered India
in the two centuries before and after the beginning of the
Christian Era might have influenced the growth of devotional
Hinduism out of Vedic religion. The classical Western
world directly affected Hindu religious art, and several
features of Hinduism can be traced to Zoroastrianism. The
influence of later Chinese Taoism on Tantric Hinduism
(an esoteric system of rituals for spiritual power) has been
suggested, though not proved. In more recent centuries,
the influence of Islam and Christianity on Hinduism can be
seen." - Britannica.com
"Hinduism - The Aryan conquerors lived side by side
with the indigenous inhabitants of the subcontinent, and many
features of Hinduism, as distinct from Vedic religion, may
have been adapted from the religions of the non-Aryan peoples
of India. The phallic emblem of the god Siva arose from
a combination of the phallic aspects of the Vedic god Indra
and a non-Vedic icon of early popular fertility cults.
Many features of Hindu mythology and several of the lesser
godsÑsuch as Ganesa , an elephant-headed god, and Hanuman
, the monkey godÑwere incorporated into Hinduism and assimilated
into the appropriate Vedic gods by this means." - Britannica.com
We can see that Hinduism as a religion is heavily dependent
upon the synthesis of theological views borrowed from other
sources. Its origin, historical development, and general principles
all openly involve this fusion of elements from other religious
systems into its own beliefs and practices. Besides the incorporation
of its precursor, the Vedic religion of the Aryans, Hinduism
has also adopted and shared elements found in Zoroastrianism,
Buddhism, Jainism, and Taoism. Each of these four religions
will be examined as we continue with this study.
Some of the beliefs that Hinduism shares can be seen in the
following quotes and will become more obvious as we look at
some of these other religions.
"Hinduism - Their basic principle is varna-ashrama-dharma,
or dharma in accordance with varna (class or caste) and ashrama
(stage of life). The four classes are the Brahmans, Kshatriyas
(warriors), Vaishyas (farmers and merchants), and Shudras
(laborers). The four stages of life are brahmacharya
or celibate student life (originally for study of the Veda),
grihastha or householdership, vanaprastha or forest hermitage,
and sannyasa, complete renunciation of all ties with
society and pursuit of spiritual liberation. (In practical
terms these stages were not strictly adhered to. The two main
alternatives have continued to be householdership and the
ascetic life.) The entire system was conceived as ideally
ensuring both the proper function of society as an integrated
whole and the fulfillment of the individual's needs through
his lifetime. The post-Vedic Puranas deal with these themes.
They also elaborate the myths of the popular gods. They
describe the universe as undergoing an eternally repeated
cycle of creation, preservation, and dissolution, represented
by the trinity of Brahma the creator, Vishnu the preserver,
and Shiva the destroyer as aspects of the Supreme." -
The Columbia Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. 2001.
"Hinduism - Magic rites, animal worship, and belief
in demons are often combined with the worship of more or less
personal gods or with mysticism, asceticism, and abstract
and profound theological systems or esoteric doctrines. The
worship of local deities does not exclude the belief in pan-Indian
higher gods or even in a single high God. Such local deities
are also frequently looked upon as manifestations of a high
God." - Britannica.com
"Hinduism - Also characteristic of Hinduism is the
belief in the power of the Brahmans, a priestly class possessing
spiritual supremacy by birth. As special manifestations of
religious power and as bearers and teachers of the Veda,
Brahmans are considered to represent the ideal of ritual purity
and social prestige." - Britannica.com
"Hinduism - Hindus believe in an uncreated, eternal,
infinite, transcendent, and all-embracing principle, which,
"comprising in itself being and non-being," is the sole
reality, the ultimate cause and foundation, source, and goal
of all existence. This ultimate reality is called brahman.
As the All, brahman causes the universe and all beings to
emanate from itself, transforms itself into the universe,
or assumes its appearance. Brahman is in all things and is
the Self (atman) of all living beings. Brahman is the creator,
preserver, or transformer and reabsorber of everything.
Although it is Being in itself, without attributes and qualities
and hence impersonal, it may also be conceived of as a
personal high God, usually as Vishnu (Vis nu) or Siva. This
fundamental belief in and the essentially religious search
for ultimate realityÑi.e., the One that is the AllÑhave
continued almost unaltered for more than 30 centuries
and have been the central focus of India's spiritual life."
- Britannica.com
"Hinduism - Hindus generally accept the doctrine
of transmigration and rebirth and the complementary belief
in karma, or previous acts as the factor that determines
the condition into which a being, after a stay in heaven
or hell, is reborn in one form or another. The whole process
of rebirths is called samsara. Any earthly process is
viewed as cyclic, and all worldly existence is subject to
the cycle. Samsara has no beginning and, in most cases, no
end; it is not a cycle of progress or a process of purification
but a matter of perpetual attachment. Karma, acting like a
clockwork that, while running down, always winds itself up,
binds the atmans (selves) of beings to the world and compels
them to go through an endless series of births and deaths."
- Britannica.com
"Hinduism - Although those Hindus who particularly
worship either Vishnu or Siva generally consider one or the
other as their "favourite god" (istadevata) and as the
Lord (Isana) and Brahman in its personal aspect, Vishnu
is often regarded as a special manifestation of the preservative
aspect of the Supreme and Siva as that of the destructive
function. Another deity, Brahma, the creator, remains
in the background as a demiurge. These three great figures
(Brahma, Vishnu, and Siva) constitute the so-called Hindu
Trinity (Trimurti, "the One or Whole with Three Forms").
This conception attempts to synthesize and harmonize the
conviction that the Supreme Power is singular with the plurality
of gods in daily religious worship. Although the concept
of the Trimurti assigns a position of special importance to
some great gods, it never has become a living element in the
religion of the people. Moreover, Brahma has had no major
cult since ancient times, and many Hindus worship neither
Siva nor Vishnu but one or more of the innumerable other
Hindu gods." - Britannica.com
"Hinduism - Although the search for moksha has never
been the goal of more than a small minority of Hindus, liberation
was a religious ideal that affected all lives. Moksha
determined not only the hierarchical values of Indian social
institutions and religious doctrines and practices but also
the function of Indian philosophy, which is to discuss what
one must do to find true fulfillment and what one has to realize,
by direct experience, in order to escape from samsara (bondage)
and obtain spiritual freedom." - Britannica.com
"Nirvana - in Buddhism, Jainism, and Hinduism, a
state of supreme liberation and bliss, contrasted to
samsara or bondage in the repeating cycle of death and rebirth...
The word in Sanskrit refers to the going out of a flame once
its fuel has been consumed; it thus suggests both the end
of suffering and the cessation of desires that perpetuate
bondage." - The Columbia Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
2001.
"Buddhism - Buddhism accepts the pan-Indian presupposition
of samsara, in which living beings are trapped in a
continual cycle of birth-and-death, with the momentum
to rebirth provided by one's previous physical and mental
actions (see karma). The release from this cycle of rebirth
and suffering is the total transcendence called nirvana."
- The Columbia Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. 2001.
Aspects of Hindu belief that are worth noting are its view
of God as All in All, that the goal of human existence is
to loose the self, transcend the material world and become
one with God (often called nirvana), the notion of cyclical
nature of the universe including the process of birth, death,
and rebirth called samsura, and karma. Several of these beliefs
can be found within Buddhism, which is the next religion that
we will examine.
Buddhism
Having completed our analysis of Hinduism it makes sense to
proceed to our second Propositional religion, Buddhism. The
reason that this progression makes sense is that Buddhism
originates out of the Hinduism of India of the sixth century
B.C. Although Buddhism has some disagreements with Hinduism,
like its rejection of the Hindu caste system that structured
ancient Indian society, Buddhism is merely an outgrowth of
Hindu thought as the following quotes all confirm.
"Hinduism - The century from about 550 BC onward was
a period of great change in the religious life of India. This
century saw the rise of breakaway sects of ascetics who denied
the authority of the Vedas and of the Brahmans and who followed
founders claiming to have discovered the secret of obtaining
release from transmigration. By far the most important
of these were Siddhartha Gautama, called the Buddha, and
Vardhamana, called Mahavira ("Great Hero"), the
great teacher of Jainism (see also Buddha; Jainism)."
- Britannica.com
"Hinduism - Around 500 BC asceticism became
widespread, and increasing numbers of intelligent young
men "gave up the world" to search for release from transmigration
by achieving a state of psychic security." - Britannica.com
"Hinduism - The 3rd century BC was the period of the
Mauryan empire, the first great empire of India. Its early
rulers were heterodox, and Asoka (reigned c. 265-238 BC),
the third and most famous of the Mauryan rulers, was a professed
Buddhist. Although there is no doubt that Asoka's patronage
of Buddhism did much to spread that religion, his inscriptions
recognize the Brahmans as worthy of respect." - Britannica.com
As an outgrowth of Hinduism, Buddhism incorporates many of
Hinduism's guiding principles and foundational beliefs. This
will become more apparent as we begin our brief overview of
origin and basic beliefs of Buddhism. The following quotes
discuss the founder and origin of Buddhism.
"Buddhism - religion and philosophy that developed
from the teachings of the Buddha Gautama (or Gotama),
who lived as early as the 6th century BC. Spreading
from India to Central and Southeast Asia, China, Korea, and
Japan, Buddhism has played a central role in the spiritual,
cultural, and social life of the Eastern world and during
the 20th century has spread to the West." - Britannica.com
"Buddhism - Buddhist tradition tells how Siddhartha
Gautama, born a prince and raised in luxury, renounced the
world at the age of 29 to search for an ultimate solution
to the problem of the suffering innate in the human condition.
After six years of spiritual discipline he achieved the
supreme enlightment and spent the remaining 45 years of
his life teaching and establishing a community of monks and
nuns, the sangha, to continue his work." - The Columbia Encyclopedia,
Sixth Edition. 2001.
"Buddha - The term buddha, literally meaning "awakened
one" or "enlightened one," is not a proper name but rather
a title, such as messiah (the Christ). Thus, the term
should be accompanied by an article, such as "the Buddha"
or "a buddha" (because of a belief that there will be innumerable
buddhas in the future as there have been in the past). The
Buddha who belongs to the present world era was born into
the Gotama (in Pali), or Gautama (in Sanskrit),
clan and is often referred to as Gotama. When the term the
Buddha is used, it is generally assumed that it refers to
Gotama the Buddha." - Britannica.com
"Buddha - According to virtually all Buddhist traditions,
the Buddha lived many lives before his birth as Gotama;
these previous lives are described in stories called Jatakas
that play an important role in Buddhist art and education.
Most Buddhists also affirm that the Buddha's life was continued
in his teachings and his relics. The following account, however,
focuses on the Buddha's "historical" life from his birth as
Gotama to his death some 80 years later." - Britannica.com
"Buddha - The Buddha was born in the 6th or 5th
century BC in the kingdom of the Sakyas, on the
borders of present-day Nepal and India. As the son of Suddhodana,
the king, and Mahamaya, the queen, the Buddha thus
came from a Khattiya family (i.e., the warrior caste or ruling
class)." - Britannica.com
"Buddha - The Buddha next addressed the monks and requested
them three times to ask him if they had any doubt or question
that they wished clarified, but they all remained silent.
The Buddha then addressed the monks: "Then, bhikkhus, I address
you now: transient are all conditioned things. Try to accomplish
your aim with diligence." These were the last words of the
Tathagata. A week later, his body was cremated by the
Mallas in Kusinara." - Britannica.com
"Buddha - [Skt.,=the enlightened One], usual title
given to the founder of Buddhism. He is also called the Tathagata
[he who has come thus], Bhagavat [the Lord], and Sugata [well-gone].
He probably lived from 563 to 483 B.C. The story of his
life is overlaid with legend, the earliest written accounts
dating 200 years after his death (see Buddhist literature)."
- The Columbia Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. 2001.
"Buddha - he reached enlightenment, becoming a Buddha
at the age of 35...For the remainder of his life he traveled
and taught in the Gangetic plain, instructing disciples and
giving his teaching to all who came to him, regardless of
caste or religion. He spent much of his time in monasteries
donated to the sangha, or community of monks, by wealthy lay
devotees. Tradition says that he died at the age of 80.
He appointed no successor but on his deathbed told his disciples
to maintain the sangha and achieve their own liberation by
relying on his teaching. He was cremated and his relics
divided among eight groups, who deposited them in shrines
called stupas." - The Columbia Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
2001.
These common resource materials provide a great deal of information
on the founder and origin of Buddhism. Buddhism was founded
in India by Siddhartha Gautama during the 5th century B.C.
(approximately 563 to 483 B.C.). Gautama is referred to by
the title Buddha, which means "enlightened one." Although
he is said to have lived many lives before being born as Gautama,
a prince of the ruling family, Buddha left his family estate
at the age of 29. When he was 35 years old, Gautama is said
to have achieved enlightenment and become the Buddha. He continued
to live and teach for the rest of his life and died and was
cremated at the age of 80 years old.
The following quotes discuss the basic tenets of Buddhism.
"Buddhism - a religion of eastern and central Asia
growing out of the teaching of Gautama Buddha that suffering
is inherent in life and that one can be liberated from it
by mental and moral self-purification." - Merriam-Webster's
Online Dictionary
"Buddhism - The basic doctrines of early Buddhism,
which remain common to all Buddhism, include the "four noble
truths": existence is suffering (dukhka); suffering has a
cause, namely craving and attachment (trishna); there is a
cessation of suffering, which is nirvana; and there is
a path to the cessation of suffering, the 'eightfold path'
of right views, right resolve, right speech, right action,
right livelihood, right effort, right mindfulness, and right
concentration." - The Columbia Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
2001.
"Buddhism - The ideal of early Buddhism was the perfected
saintly sage, arahant or arhat, who attained liberation
by purifying self of all defilements and desires." - The
Columbia Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. 2001.
"Buddhism - Buddhism accepts the pan-Indian presupposition
of samsara, in which living beings are trapped in a
continual cycle of birth-and-death, with the momentum
to rebirth provided by one's previous physical and mental
actions (see karma). The release from this cycle of rebirth
and suffering is the total transcendence called nirvana."
- The Columbia Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. 2001.
"Nirvana - in Indian religious thought, the
supreme goal of the meditation disciplines. The concept
is most characteristic of Buddhism, in which it signifies
the transcendent state of freedom achieved by the extinction
of desire and of individual consciousness. According to
the Buddhist analysis of the human situation, delusions of
egocentricity and their resultant desires bind man to a
continuous round of rebirths and its consequent suffering
(dukkha). It is release from these bonds that constitutes
Enlightenment, or the experience of Nirva na." - Britannica.com
"Buddhism - The Buddha left indeterminate questions
regarding the destiny of persons who have reached this ultimate
goal. He even refused to speculate as to whether such purified
saints, after death, continued to exist or ceased to exist.
Such questions, he maintained, were not relevant to the practice
of the path and could not in any event be answered from within
the confines of ordinary human existence. Though it is true
that the Buddha avoided discussion of the ultimate condition
that lay beyond the categories of the phenomenal world, he
often affirmed the reality of the religious goal. For example,
he is reported to have said: "There is an unborn, an unoriginated,
an unmade, an uncompounded; were there not, there would be
no escape from the world of the born, the originated, the
made, and the compounded." In his teaching, the Buddha strongly
asserted that the ontological status and character of the
unconditioned nirvana cannot be delineated in a way that does
not distort or misrepresent it. But what is more important
is that he asserted with even more insistence that nirvana
can be experiencedÑand experienced in this present existenceÑby
those who, knowing the Buddhist truth, practice the Buddhist
path." - Britannica.com
One of the fundamental doctrines of Buddhism is the "four
noble truths." These are 1) existence is suffering,
2) suffering has cause, 3) there is a cessation
of suffering, which is nirvana, and 4) there is a path
to the cessation of suffering. The path to the cessation of
suffering is known as the "the eightfold path." By following
this path the Buddhist can attain the state of enlightenment
or nirvana, in which one who has attained wisdom becomes liberated
from the bondage of the material world and its cycle of life
and death and transcends beyond individual consciousness into
a state of harmony. As we can see it is accurate to conclude
that Buddhism is an outgrowth of ancient Hindu beliefs, from
which it borrows heavily, especially regarding fundamental
views of God, the universe, and humanity's relation to both.
But can we consider Gautama and his teachings historical?
Yes, by comparing the standards we defined above for historicity
with the available information about Buddhism, we can in fact
consider it to have historically identifiable origins.
"Buddhism - After the Buddha's death his teachings
were orally transmitted until the 1st cent. B.C., when they
were first committed to writing (see Buddhist literature;
Pali). Conflicting opinions about monastic practice as well
as religious and philosophical issues, especially concerning
the analyses of experience elaborated as the systems of Abhidharma,
probably caused differing sects to flourish rapidly. Knowledge
of early differences is limited, however, because the earliest
extant written version of the scriptures (1st cent. A.D.)
is the Pali canon of the Theravada school of Sri Lanka." -
The Columbia Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. 2001.
"Sanskrit Tripitaka - the total canon of the southern
schools of Buddhism, somewhat pejoratively dubbed Hinayana
(Lesser Vehicle) by the self-styled Mahayana (Greater Vehicle)
schools; for the latter, the canon constitutes a preliminary
body of teachings, analogous to the Old Testament in Christianity.
The books of this southern canon were nearly all written
in India within 500 years of the time of the Buddha (between
about 500 BC and the beginning of the Christian Era).
- Britannica.com
"Buddha - The version of the story presented here is
based on the Pali Tipitaka, which is recognized by scholars
as the earliest extant record of the Buddha's discourses,
and on the later Pali commentaries. The style and technique
of these ancient texts, followed in this biography, provide
arecordÑsometimes symbolic, sometimes legendary, and always
graphicÑof the life of the revered Teacher." - Britannica.com
As the above quotes state, the records of Gautama's life and
teachings are provided to us from the sacred writings of Buddhism.
This record was orally transmitted from the time Gautama's
death until sometime in the 2nd or 1st century B.C. The earliest
surviving and complete written version of Buddhist scripture
is from the Sri Lankan Theravada School. It was written in
29-17 B.C., between 450-500 years after Gautama's death.
For reference here are the three requirements for historicity
that we discovered earlier.
1.At least two copies of supposed original manuscripts
must survive into modern times.
2. Surviving copies of the original manuscripts must
be written within 1400 years or so after the figures and events
they describe.
3. The supposed original documents can be written by
people who were first, second, or third-hand witnesses to
the events, or who were more than two generations or even
five hundred years removed from the actual persons or events
that they are describing.
From all of this we can see that the historical documentation
for the existence and teaching of Siddhartha Gautama is limited,
dating to several centuries after his death by persons who
were many generations removed and without first or second-hand
knowledge of him. Nevertheless, the criteria we established
earlier for determining historicity of ancient figures does
permit us to accept Siddhartha Gautama as a real historical
person who actually was a royal prince who vacated his noble
life and title and who is responsible for spreading the teaching
of early Buddhism.
So we have answered our first criterion, does Buddhism have
historically identifiable origins? It does. However, as we
stated earlier, just because a religion has historically identifiable
origins in real persons and events does not mean that that
religion has an accurate view of God. Concluding that Siddhartha
Gautama was a historical figure does not mean that his teachings
are correct.
In order to determine if Buddhism's view of God is correct
we now have to engage our second criterion. We have to evaluate
if there is any means of verifying the accuracy of Gautama's
claims. If there is no objective evidence to be examined then
we will have to reject the Buddhist view of God because without
any means of objectively verifying Gautama's claims, we would
not be able to determine whether or not the Buddhist understanding
of God is accurate or reliable.
However if we find that Buddhism does provide objective evidence
for the accuracy of its claims, then we can analyze that evidence
to see if it does in fact lend support to the accuracy of
the Buddhist view of God. If it does we may accept Buddhist
teachings as accurate and reliable views of God. If it does
not we will reject Buddhist teachings because we will not
have any reason to accept it as an accurate and reliable view
of God.
So, does Buddhism provide any objective evidence to verify
its claims? No, in fact, it does not. We cannot objectively
determine whether or not Gautama actually achieved any supposed
state of enlightenment at age 35 or at any time during his
life. We cannot objectively know if anyone has reached as
state of enlightened knowledge and harmony with the universe.
Even within Buddhism, there is no suggested external, physical
manifestation of enlightenment, which we might look for or
evaluate. Thus, Buddhism doesn't even offer any evidence to
substantiate that enlightenment has occurred, either for Siddhartha
Gautama or any other person.
Additionally, there is nothing from what we might historically
accept about Gautama's life that would objectively confirm
that his religious views are accurate or reliable. The most
remarkable thing that may accept that he did was to forsake
the noble life of his family at age 29. Though this act may
be commendable there is nothing about it that would indicate
that Gautama's teaching about God are correct especially when
we consider the cultural and historical context in which Gautama
lived. But even without considering this content, it is apparent
that a person's decision to leave a life of luxury and comfort
says nothing about the accuracy of their worldview.
And there is nothing remarkable about the Gautama's death
that would confirm the accuracy of his views. Instead, Buddhism
holds that Gautama, the Buddha, the enlightened one died at
the age of 80 and was cremated. And, as we saw earlier, Gautama
himself refrained from teaching on the afterlife of those
who had achieved nirvana.
"Buddhism - The Buddha left indeterminate questions
regarding the destiny of persons who have reached this ultimate
goal. He even refused to speculate as to whether such purified
saints, after death, continued to exist or ceased to exist.
Such questions, he maintained, were not relevant to the practice
of the path and could not in any event be answered from within
the confines of ordinary human existence. Though it is true
that the Buddha avoided discussion of the ultimate condition
that lay beyond the categories of the phenomenal world, he
often affirmed the reality of the religious goal. For example,
he is reported to have said: "There is an unborn, an unoriginated,
an unmade, an uncompounded; were there not, there would be
no escape from the world of the born, the originated, the
made, and the compounded." In his teaching, the Buddha
strongly asserted that the ontological status and character
of the unconditioned nirvana cannot be delineated in a way
that does not distort or misrepresent it. But what is
more important is that he asserted with even more insistence
that nirvana can be experiencedÑand experienced in this present
existenceÑby those who, knowing the Buddhist truth, practice
the Buddhist path." - Britannica.com
So we can see that for Buddhism, like its predecessor Hinduism,
the only means of verifying its teachings are the subjective,
experiences of individuals who commit themselves to the Buddhist
path. And because of this dependence upon the subjective experience
of the individual, the acceptance of Buddhist views is entirely
an exercise in circular reasoning.
What compels someone to believe that Buddhism is true? That
person's presupposition that Buddhism it true. Therefore,
the belief in Buddhism is merely a self-supported process
completely dependent upon first presuming the accuracy of
unverified propositions.
From all of this we have no choice, but to reject the religious
views of Buddhism. We must do this for one of two reasons.
Either Buddhism offers no objective evidence for the accuracy
of its claims and so provides no objective reason for those
claims to be accepted as accurate. Or the objective evidence
that we do have for Buddhism lends no objective support to
the conclusion that Buddhism is correct. What we know of Gautama
simply portrays the life of a man, who lived, died, and taught
in a manner that is not significantly different from other
men. This will become more apparent as we continue forward
in this study looking at some religious movements that developed
as contemporaries of Buddhism in the same geographic area.
But for now, we can conclude that we have no sound reason
for the acceptance of the Buddhist view of God.
Having dismissed the Buddhist view of God because of insufficient
reasonable evidence to accept its claims as accurate, we will
now proceed to examine our next Propositional religion, Jainism.
